Best PsyD Programs in Counseling Psychology – An APA-Accredited PsyD is Your Path to Becoming a Licensed Psychologist
For those drawn to helping others navigate life’s challenges through a strengths-based, developmental approach, a Doctor of Psychology (PsyD) in Counseling Psychology offers a distinctive and rewarding career path. Unlike the more pathology-focused clinical psychology PsyD programs, counseling psychology emphasizes wellness, prevention, and helping individuals across the lifespan achieve their full potential.
With only 13 APA-accredited PsyD programs in Counseling Psychology across the United States, these programs represent a select group of options for preparing practitioner-scholars who blend therapeutic expertise with a deep understanding of human development, multicultural competence, and social justice. This exclusivity means that graduates enter a field where their specialized training is both recognized and valued.
“Counseling psychology focuses on facilitating personal and interpersonal functioning across the life span. We emphasize emotional, social, vocational, educational, health-related, developmental, and organizational concerns—taking a holistic view of human potential.”
– Dr. Y. Barry Chung, Past President, Society of Counseling Psychology (Division 17, APA)
This comprehensive guide presents all 13 APA-accredited PsyD programs in Counseling Psychology, each offering unique strengths and opportunities. Whether you’re interested in college counseling, vocational psychology, health and wellness promotion, or multicultural practice, these programs provide the rigorous training necessary to excel in diverse professional settings.
The Critical Importance of APA Accreditation
Understanding Counseling Psychology
Choosing Your Counseling Psychology Path
Why Choose a PsyD Over a PhD in Counseling Psychology?
While PhD programs in counseling psychology follow the traditional scientist-practitioner model with heavy emphasis on research and dissertation requirements, the Doctor of Psychology (PsyD) degree offers a distinctly practice-focused alternative that may better align with many students’ career goals. Here’s what sets the PsyD apart from a PhD in Psychology:
| Aspect | PsyD Programs | PhD Programs |
|---|---|---|
| Primary Focus | Clinical practice and service delivery | Research and knowledge generation |
| Dissertation | Doctoral project (practice-focused) | Original research dissertation |
| Clinical Training | Extensive (often 2000+ hours) | Moderate (balanced with research) |
| Typical Timeline | 4-5 years | 5-7 years |
| Career Goals | Direct service, supervision, administration | Academia, research, policy |
Key Advantages of PsyD Training:
- More Clinical Hours: PsyD students typically accumulate significantly more supervised clinical hours, providing deeper and more varied practical experience
- Faster Path to Practice: Without extensive research requirements, PsyD students often complete their degrees 1-2 years faster
- Practice-Relevant Coursework: Curriculum emphasizes assessment, intervention, consultation, and supervision skills over research methodology
- Diverse Training Settings: Programs prioritize partnerships with community agencies, hospitals, and counseling centers
- Applied Dissertation: Doctoral projects focus on solving real-world clinical problems rather than theoretical research
“The PsyD was developed to train expert practitioners who could apply psychological knowledge to help people effectively. For students whose passion is direct service rather than research, the PsyD provides focused preparation for the realities of professional practice.”
– Dr. Dorothy W. Cantor, Past President, American Psychological Association
It’s important to note that both PsyD and PhD graduates are eligible for the same licensure and can pursue similar career paths. The choice between degrees should reflect your professional goals: If you envision a career primarily focused on clinical practice, supervision, and service delivery, the PsyD’s practice emphasis may be ideal. If you’re drawn to academia, research, or developing new interventions, a PhD might be the better fit.
The programs featured here range from small, intimate cohorts in liberal arts settings to larger programs within comprehensive universities. What unites them is their commitment to the counseling psychology tradition of viewing clients through a lens of strength and resilience rather than deficit and dysfunction, combined with intensive preparation for the demands of professional practice.
The Critical Importance of APA Accreditation
When pursuing a doctoral degree in counseling psychology, APA (American Psychological Association) accreditation is not just a quality indicator—it’s essential for your professional future. All 13 programs featured in this guide maintain full APA accreditation, which provides several critical advantages:
| Benefit | Why It Matters | Impact on Your Career |
|---|---|---|
| Licensure Eligibility | Required for psychologist licensure in all 50 states | Enables independent practice and full scope of psychological services |
| Internship Access | Eligibility for APA-accredited internships | Opens doors to prestigious training sites and better match rates |
| Quality Assurance | Programs meet rigorous educational standards | Ensures comprehensive training in all core competency areas |
| Professional Mobility | Degree recognized across states and settings | Flexibility to practice anywhere in the U.S. after licensure |
| Employment Advantages | Many employers require APA-accredited degrees | Access to positions in hospitals, VAs, and academic settings |
Full Psychologist Licensure: Graduates of these APA-accredited PsyD programs in Counseling Psychology are eligible for licensure as psychologists in all 50 states, the District of Columbia, and U.S. territories. This means you’ll have the full scope of practice, including:
- Independent practice without supervision
- Ability to diagnose and treat mental health conditions
- Psychological testing and assessment privileges
- Insurance billing and Medicare provider status
- Hospital admitting privileges where applicable
- Supervision of other mental health professionals
“APA accreditation is the gold standard in psychology education. It ensures that graduates have received training that meets the highest professional standards and prepares them for the full range of professional psychology activities.”
– Dr. Jacqueline Wall, Chair, APA Commission on Accreditation
PsyD Programs Tailored to Counseling Psychology
Counseling psychology represents a unique approach within professional psychology, emphasizing human strengths, optimal functioning, and quality of life across diverse populations and settings. While counseling psychologists are fully trained in assessment and intervention for psychological disorders, the field’s philosophical foundation differs from clinical psychology in important ways:
Core Principles of Counseling Psychology:
- Strengths-Based Approach: Focus on building upon clients’ existing resources and resilience
- Developmental Perspective: Understanding problems within the context of normal human development
- Prevention and Wellness: Emphasis on preventing problems and promoting optimal functioning
- Social Justice Orientation: Commitment to addressing systemic barriers and advocating for equity
- Multicultural Competence: Deep integration of diversity considerations in all aspects of practice
- Vocational Psychology: Unique expertise in career development and work-life issues
Counseling psychologists work in diverse settings including:
- College and university counseling centers
- Community mental health centers
- Private practice
- Hospitals and integrated healthcare settings
- Employee assistance programs
- Career counseling centers
- VA medical centers
- Consultation and coaching practices
Northeast Region PsyD in Counseling Programs
Massachusetts
Springfield College
Counseling Psychology Psy.D. Program
Doctor of Psychology in Counseling Psychology (PsyD)
Specialty Tracks:
- Athletic Counseling
- College Counseling
- Multicultural Counseling
- Strength and Conditioning Psychology
Pacing & Delivery Options:
- Full-time, 5-year program
- On-campus format with practicum integration
- Summer session options
Program Highlights:
- Pioneer in humanistic and strengths-based approaches to counseling
- Unique emphasis on athletic and performance psychology
- Strong tradition in college counseling center training
- Beautiful New England campus with wellness focus
- Integrated practicum experiences from year one
- Faculty expertise in multicultural counseling and social justice
- Counseling center serving campus and community
- Alumni network strong in college counseling and athletics
Springfield College, known as the “Birthplace of Basketball,” brings its historic commitment to mind, body, and spirit to its counseling psychology program. The program’s unique integration of sport and performance psychology with traditional counseling training creates graduates who excel in diverse settings, from college counseling centers to athletic departments. The program’s humanistic foundation emphasizes the whole person, making it ideal for those drawn to strengths-based, wellness-oriented practice.
New Jersey
Saint Elizabeth University
Psychology Department
Doctor of Psychology in Counseling Psychology (PsyD)
Specialty Tracks:
- Community Counseling
- Multicultural Psychology
- Women’s Mental Health
- Integrative Approaches
Pacing & Delivery Options:
- Full-time, 5-year program
- Part-time options available
- Weekend courses for working professionals
Program Highlights:
- Strong emphasis on serving diverse and underserved populations
- Catholic heritage with inclusive, social justice orientation
- Small cohort sizes ensure personalized mentorship
- Located near New York City with diverse practicum options
- Focus on women’s mental health issues
- Community partnerships throughout Northern New Jersey
- Bilingual training opportunities (Spanish-English)
- Strong alumni presence in community mental health
Saint Elizabeth University’s counseling psychology program combines a strong social justice mission with practical training for community-based practice. The program’s location in the diverse New York metropolitan area provides unparalleled opportunities for multicultural training. With its emphasis on serving underserved populations and its flexible scheduling options, the program attracts students committed to making mental health services accessible to all communities.
Felician University
Counseling Psychology Psy.D.
Doctor of Psychology in Counseling Psychology (PsyD)
Specialty Tracks:
- Child and Adolescent Counseling
- Adult Mental Health
- School-Based Mental Health
- Trauma-Informed Care
Pacing & Delivery Options:
- Full-time, 5-year program
- Part-time track available
- Evening and weekend options
Program Highlights:
- Franciscan values emphasizing compassion and service
- Strong partnerships with school districts for training
- Emphasis on developmental and preventive approaches
- Training in both individual and systems interventions
- Located between New York City and Philadelphia
- Diverse practicum sites across New Jersey
- Focus on evidence-based practices in counseling
- Small program size with close faculty relationships
Felician University’s PsyD in Counseling Psychology integrates Franciscan values of service with contemporary counseling practices. The program’s emphasis on school-based mental health and preventive interventions prepares graduates to work effectively in educational settings while maintaining the flexibility to practice across the lifespan. Its location provides access to both urban and suburban training environments.
Pennsylvania
Carlow University
Department of Psychology, Counseling, & Criminology
Doctor of Psychology in Counseling Psychology (PsyD)
Specialty Tracks:
- Women’s Issues in Counseling
- Health Psychology
- Multicultural Counseling
- Career Development
Pacing & Delivery Options:
- Full-time, 5-year program
- Part-time options for working professionals
- Hybrid learning components
Program Highlights:
- Founded in the Sisters of Mercy tradition of social justice
- Strong emphasis on women’s mental health and empowerment
- Pittsburgh location offers diverse clinical training sites
- Integration with university’s health sciences programs
- Focus on holistic and integrative approaches
- Community clinic serving underserved populations
- Small cohorts with individualized attention
- Emphasis on ethical practice and advocacy
Carlow University’s counseling psychology program stands out for its commitment to social justice and women’s empowerment, rooted in its Sisters of Mercy heritage. Located in Pittsburgh’s Oakland neighborhood alongside major medical centers and universities, the program provides exceptional training opportunities while maintaining an intimate, supportive learning environment. The program’s focus on holistic wellness and social advocacy prepares graduates to address both individual and systemic factors affecting mental health.
Holy Family University
Doctorate of Psychology in Counseling Psychology Programs
Doctor of Psychology in Counseling Psychology (PsyD)
Specialty Tracks:
- Family and Couples Counseling
- Child and Adolescent Services
- College Counseling
- Integrated Behavioral Health
Pacing & Delivery Options:
- Full-time, 5-year program
- Part-time evening/weekend track
- Summer intensive options
Program Highlights:
- Strong emphasis on family systems and relational approaches
- Catholic institution with inclusive, holistic philosophy
- Philadelphia area provides rich training opportunities
- On-campus counseling center for practicum training
- Integration of spirituality and counseling (optional)
- Small class sizes with personalized mentoring
- Strong preparation for college counseling careers
- Emphasis on developmental and preventive interventions
Holy Family University’s PsyD program uniquely emphasizes family systems and relational approaches within the counseling psychology tradition. The program’s location in the Philadelphia region provides access to diverse communities and clinical settings. With flexible scheduling options and a holistic approach to training, the program attracts students interested in integrating multiple perspectives in their counseling practice.
Chatham University
Graduate Psychology Department
Doctor of Psychology in Counseling Psychology (PsyD)
Specialty Tracks:
- Health and Wellness
- Infant and Early Childhood Mental Health
- Integrative and Holistic Approaches
- Community Psychology
Pacing & Delivery Options:
- Full-time, 5-year program
- Part-time options available
- Some hybrid/online components
Program Highlights:
- Unique focus on infant and early childhood mental health
- Strong emphasis on health psychology and wellness
- Beautiful campus with focus on sustainability
- Pittsburgh location provides diverse training opportunities
- Integration with university’s health sciences programs
- Small, supportive cohorts
- Emphasis on evidence-based and integrative practices
- Strong community partnerships for practicum
Chatham University’s counseling psychology program distinguishes itself through its innovative focus on infant and early childhood mental health, one of the few programs nationally with this specialization. The program’s holistic approach to wellness, combined with Pittsburgh’s robust healthcare infrastructure, creates unique training opportunities. Chatham’s historic commitment to women’s education and social justice infuses the program with a progressive, inclusive atmosphere.
Midwest Region PsyD in Counseling Programs
Minnesota
University of St. Thomas
Graduate School of Professional Psychology
Doctor of Psychology in Counseling Psychology (PsyD)
Specialty Tracks:
- Health Psychology
- Multicultural Psychology
- Family Psychology
- Vocational Psychology
Pacing & Delivery Options:
- Full-time, 5-year program
- Traditional campus-based format
- Year-round curriculum options
Program Highlights:
- Located in vibrant Twin Cities metropolitan area
- Strong emphasis on multicultural competence
- Catholic institution with commitment to social justice
- Excellent practicum partnerships throughout Minnesota
- Faculty expertise in health disparities research
- Emphasis on integrative and holistic approaches
- Strong vocational psychology training
- Alumni network throughout Upper Midwest
The University of St. Thomas combines the counseling psychology tradition with a strong commitment to addressing health disparities and promoting social justice. Located in Minnesota’s Twin Cities, students benefit from a metropolitan area known for its progressive healthcare systems and diverse communities. The program’s emphasis on vocational psychology honors counseling psychology’s historic roots while preparing graduates for contemporary practice.
Saint Mary’s University of Minnesota
Psychology Department
Doctor of Psychology in Counseling Psychology (PsyD)
Specialty Tracks:
- Rural Mental Health
- Integrated Primary Care
- Marriage and Family Counseling
- Addictions Counseling
Pacing & Delivery Options:
- Full-time, 5-year program
- Flexible scheduling options
- Some online/hybrid components
Program Highlights:
- Unique emphasis on rural mental health delivery
- Training in integrated behavioral health models
- Lasallian Catholic tradition of inclusive education
- Partnerships with rural Minnesota communities
- Strong preparation for diverse practice settings
- Emphasis on underserved populations
- Beautiful campus setting with Twin Cities access
- Small cohorts with close mentoring relationships
Saint Mary’s University of Minnesota addresses a critical need in mental healthcare through its emphasis on rural mental health and integrated care. The program’s innovative approach to training counseling psychologists for rural practice, combined with its focus on integrated primary care, prepares graduates for the evolving healthcare landscape. Students benefit from both the intimate campus community and access to Twin Cities resources.
Southeast Region PsyD in Counseling Programs
Tennessee
Austin Peay State University
Psy D in Counseling Psychology/Psychological Science and Counseling
Doctor of Psychology in Counseling Psychology (PsyD)
Specialty Tracks:
- Military and Veteran Mental Health
- Rural Mental Health
- Child and Adolescent Counseling
- College Counseling
Pacing & Delivery Options:
- Full-time, 5-year program
- Traditional on-campus format
- Some evening courses available
Program Highlights:
- Proximity to Fort Campbell creates unique military psychology training
- Only APA-accredited counseling psychology PsyD in Tennessee
- Strong emphasis on serving military families and veterans
- Public university with affordable tuition
- Growing program with expanding resources
- Rural mental health training opportunities
- Faculty expertise in trauma and resilience
- Close mentoring relationships in small cohorts
Austin Peay State University’s counseling psychology program leverages its unique position near Fort Campbell to provide exceptional training in military and veteran mental health. As Tennessee’s only APA-accredited PsyD in counseling psychology, the program fills a critical need in the region. The combination of military-connected training and rural mental health emphasis prepares graduates for diverse career paths serving those who serve.
Virginia
Radford University
Department of Psychology
Doctor of Psychology in Counseling Psychology (PsyD)
Specialty Tracks:
- General Counseling Psychology
- Child and Family
- Health Psychology
- College Counseling
Pacing & Delivery Options:
- Full-time, 5-year program
- Traditional campus-based training
- Summer practicum options
Program Highlights:
- Beautiful Blue Ridge Mountain setting
- Only public university PsyD in counseling psychology in Virginia
- Strong emphasis on evidence-based practice
- Psychology training clinic serving the community
- Emphasis on rural and underserved populations
- Affordable public university tuition
- Close faculty mentorship with small cohorts
- Growing alumni network throughout Virginia
Radford University’s counseling psychology program combines the accessibility of public education with high-quality doctoral training. Set in Virginia’s scenic New River Valley, the program emphasizes serving diverse communities across urban and rural settings. As the only public university offering a PsyD in counseling psychology in Virginia, Radford provides an affordable path to doctoral training while maintaining rigorous standards.
Southwest Region PsyD in Counseling Programs
Texas
Our Lady of the Lake University
Department of Psychology / School of Professional Studies
Doctor of Psychology in Counseling Psychology (PsyD)
Specialty Tracks:
- Bilingual/Bicultural Psychology (Spanish-English)
- Community Mental Health
- Child and Adolescent Services
- Health Psychology
Pacing & Delivery Options:
- Full-time, 5-year program
- Part-time options available
- Weekend cohort format available
Program Highlights:
- • Premier training in bilingual/bicultural counseling psychology
- • Located in culturally rich San Antonio
- • Strong emphasis on serving Latino/Hispanic communities
- • Catholic institution with social justice mission
- • Community clinic providing bilingual services
- • Faculty expertise in multicultural counseling
- • Partnerships throughout South Texas
- • Preparation for border region mental health needs
Our Lady of the Lake University’s counseling psychology program stands as a national leader in bilingual and bicultural training. Located in San Antonio, with its rich multicultural heritage, the program prepares counseling psychologists to serve the growing Latino/Hispanic population with cultural competence and linguistic fluency. The program’s deep community connections and social justice orientation create graduates ready to address mental health disparities in underserved communities.
West Region PsyD in Counseling Programs
Washington
Northwest University
College of Social and Behavioral Sciences
Doctor of Psychology in Counseling Psychology (PsyD)
Specialty Tracks:
- Integration of Psychology and Faith
- Marriage and Family
- Multicultural Counseling
- Trauma and Crisis Intervention
Pacing & Delivery Options:
- Full-time, 5-year program
- Part-time options available
- Some hybrid course offerings
Program Highlights:
- • Located in greater Seattle area with diverse training opportunities
- • Christian institution welcoming students of all backgrounds
- • Optional integration of faith and psychology track
- • Strong emphasis on multicultural competence
- • Beautiful Pacific Northwest campus setting
- • Small cohorts with personalized attention
- • Growing mental health needs in Washington state
- • Faculty expertise in trauma-informed care
Northwest University’s counseling psychology program offers a unique blend of rigorous professional training with optional faith integration for those interested. Located near Seattle, students benefit from the Pacific Northwest’s progressive mental health landscape while training in a supportive, values-based environment. The program’s flexibility allows students to pursue either secular or faith-integrated approaches to counseling psychology.
Caribbean Region PsyD in Counseling Programs
Puerto Rico
Universidad Ana G. Méndez, Gurabo Campus
School of Social Sciences
Doctor of Psychology in Counseling Psychology (PsyD)
Specialty Tracks:
- Community Psychology
- Health Psychology
- School-Based Services
- Crisis and Disaster Psychology
Pacing & Delivery Options:
- Full-time, 5-year program
- Part-time options available
- Bilingual instruction (Spanish-English)
Program Highlights:
- • Only APA-accredited counseling psychology PsyD in Puerto Rico
- • Bilingual training preparing for practice in Spanish and English
- • Strong emphasis on cultural psychology and Latino mental health
- • Training in disaster and crisis response
- • Community partnerships throughout Puerto Rico
- • Faculty expertise in Caribbean and Latino psychology
- • Preparation for practice in Puerto Rico and mainland U.S.
- • Emphasis on social justice and community empowerment
Universidad Ana G. Méndez’s counseling psychology program serves as a vital bridge between Caribbean and mainland U.S. psychology training. As Puerto Rico’s only APA-accredited PsyD in counseling psychology, the program addresses unique mental health needs of Spanish-speaking populations while preparing bilingual psychologists for practice anywhere in the United States. The program’s emphasis on disaster psychology reflects Puerto Rico’s experiences and prepares graduates for crisis intervention work.
“The future of counseling psychology lies in our ability to serve increasingly diverse populations with culturally responsive, strengths-based approaches. These programs are preparing the next generation to meet that challenge.”
– Dr. Melba J.T. Vasquez, Past President, American Psychological Association
Frequently Asked Questions
What makes counseling psychology different from clinical psychology?
Counseling psychology emphasizes strengths, optimal functioning, and developmental perspectives rather than pathology. While both are licensed as psychologists with similar scope of practice, counseling psychology traditionally focuses on helping people navigate life transitions, career issues, and adjustment concerns, using wellness and prevention-oriented approaches. Counseling psychologists often work in college counseling centers, community settings, and vocational rehabilitation.
Can I become a fully licensed psychologist with a PsyD in Counseling Psychology?
Yes! Graduates of APA-accredited PsyD programs in Counseling Psychology are eligible for full psychologist licensure in all 50 states. You’ll have the same practice privileges as clinical psychologists, including independent practice, diagnosis, treatment, and psychological testing. The key is graduating from an APA-accredited program, which all 13 programs listed here maintain.
Why are there so few PsyD programs in Counseling Psychology compared to Clinical Psychology?
With only 13 APA-accredited programs nationwide, PsyD programs in Counseling Psychology are indeed rare. This reflects counseling psychology’s traditional emphasis on the scientist-practitioner model (PhD) and its roots in academic settings. However, these 13 programs recognized the need for practice-focused doctoral training that maintains counseling psychology’s unique identity and values.
What career opportunities are unique to counseling psychology?
Counseling psychology training opens doors to several specialized areas: college counseling center positions (often preferred), career counseling and vocational rehabilitation, employee assistance programs, organizational consulting, sport and performance psychology, and prevention program development. The field’s emphasis on normal development and strengths makes counseling psychologists particularly suited for wellness-oriented positions.
How competitive are admissions to these programs?
PsyD programs in Counseling Psychology are highly competitive, often more so than clinical programs due to their limited number. Most programs accept 5-10% of applicants, with cohort sizes typically ranging from 6-15 students. Successful applicants usually have strong academic records, relevant experience in counseling or human services, demonstrated commitment to multicultural issues, and clear understanding of counseling psychology’s unique identity.
Do these programs require a master’s degree for admission?
Requirements vary by program. Some accept students with bachelor’s degrees and award a master’s en route, while others prefer or require a master’s degree in counseling or related field. Programs that accept bachelor’s-level students often look for substantial relevant experience. Check each program’s specific requirements, as this can significantly impact your preparation timeline.
What’s the typical internship match rate for these programs?
APA-accredited PsyD programs in Counseling Psychology typically report internship match rates between 85-100%, well above the national average. The small number of programs and their quality mean graduates are competitive for both counseling and clinical psychology internship sites. Many students match at university counseling centers, VA medical centers, and community mental health centers.
How do these programs address multicultural competence?
Multicultural competence is central to counseling psychology’s identity, and all 13 programs integrate diversity training throughout their curricula. This goes beyond single courses to include diverse practicum experiences, multicultural supervision, and social justice advocacy training. Many programs offer specialized tracks in multicultural counseling or serve diverse communities where students gain extensive cross-cultural experience.
Choosing Your Counseling Psychology Path
The decision to pursue a PsyD in Counseling Psychology represents a commitment to a distinctive professional identity—one that views human potential through a lens of strength, resilience, and growth. With only 13 APA-accredited programs nationwide, you’re choosing to join a select group of professionals dedicated to promoting wellness, preventing psychological difficulties, and helping diverse individuals achieve their full potential.
Each program in this guide offers unique strengths, from Springfield College’s integration of sport psychology to Our Lady of the Lake’s bilingual training, from Austin Peay’s military emphasis to Chatham’s infant mental health focus. What unites them is a shared commitment to the counseling psychology tradition of holistic, culturally responsive, developmental approaches to mental health.
As you consider your options, reflect on:
- Your preferred populations and settings for future practice
- The importance of specific specialty tracks or training emphases
- Geographic preferences and practicum opportunities
- Program size and culture
- Financial considerations and funding opportunities
- The program’s approach to integrating counseling psychology values
The path to becoming a counseling psychologist is both challenging and deeply rewarding. These 13 programs provide the rigorous training, mentorship, and professional development necessary to excel in this vital field. Whether your passion lies in college counseling, community mental health, integrated healthcare, or emerging areas of practice, there’s a program designed to help you achieve your professional goals while staying true to counseling psychology’s core values.
Take the time to explore each program thoroughly, connect with faculty and current students, and envision yourself in each setting. The right program will not only prepare you for licensure and professional practice but will also nurture your development as a counseling psychologist committed to fostering human potential and social justice.
